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Tuesday, September 2, 2008

Benefits Of Honey

Benefits Of Honey

Bees from the nectar of the flowers produce honey a sweet sticky substance. From ages honey has been an essential part in the beauty regimes.

Lets take a look at the benefits that honey has provided us.

* Honey has anti-microbial properties and is known to treat minor irritations and sun burns.

* It is a good substance that should be used in moisturizers, creams and other beauty products as honey has the ability to retain water.

* One teaspoon of honey poured in a mug of water and if used for the last rinse will bring a shine to the hair. It will work wonders and make your hair soft and silky.

* It works well with alpha hydrochloric acids - it helps soothe the skin against an abrasive treatment.

* Apply equal parts of honey and milk and leave for twenty minutes, you will notice a glow on your skin.

* Honey fights against any kind of skin damage and aging as it has antioxidant properties.

* It also helps to fight against the damage caused by sun's UV rays.

Benefits Of Lemon

Benefits Of Lemon

A lemon is a yellow fruit with an aromatic rind and a tangy and acidic flavor. Though many assign its origin to India and China, the exact history of the fruit remains a mystery till date. Squashed either as lemonade, or simply used as a cooking or garnishing ingredient; lemons are very high in nutritional value. Besides, many spirit-lovers will love to swear by lemons, when it comes to mixing and matching cocktails and mocktails. Due to their therapeutic powers, lemons are also popular in the field of traditional medicines. The following article spells out the various health and nutritional benefits associated with eating lemons.

Nutritional Value of Lemons
Given below is the amount of nutrients present in 100g portion of the fruit.
Energy - 30 kcal
Water - 89 g
Carbohydrates - 9g
Fat - 0.3 g
Sugar - 2.5 g
Dietary fiber - 2.8 g
Protein - 1.1 g
Vitamin C - 53 mg
Citric Acid - 5g
Trace amounts of selenium, zinc, manganese and copper


Health & Nutrition Benefits of Eating Lemons
Lemon juice mixed with hot water is effective in curing problems like digestive disorders, nausea, heartburn and biliousness.
Lemons are also beneficial for alleviating problems of the lower intestines like constipation and worm infestations.
Regular consumption of lemon juice in the morning stimulates the bile-producing capacity of liver and helps in digestion.
Concentrated juice of lemon also helps in dissolving stones present in the gall bladder.
The high vitamin C content of lemons treats infections like asthma, tonsillitis and sore throat.
Eating lemons also hastens healing of wounds and helps to lower high body temperature.
When applied on the skin, lemon juice also helps in removing suntan. You can also add a few drops of lemon juice in your bath water to freshen up your day.
Lemon is also a well-known diuretic. Thus, it helps to treat problems associated with urinary tract infections.
Eating lemons also helps to dispel problems like arthritis or rheumatism.
Lemon juice mixed with glycerin is an effective remedy for smoothening chapped lips.
Mixed with coffee, lemon juice turns out to be a very effective concoction for treating problems like malaria and headaches.
A few drops of lemon juice dabbed on a cotton ball and applied to nostrils helps to stop nose bleeding.
Gently massaging concentrated juice on the gums helps to cure problems of gum bleeding.
Concentrated lemon balms are helpful for curing cough, colds, high blood pressure, hay fever, dizziness and menstrual cramps.

Benefits Of Guava

Benefits Of Guava

Guava is a tropical fruit, cultivated mainly in the Asian countries. It is quite similar in shape to pear and has a rind that is green in color and changes to yellow when it becomes over-ripe. Inside the rind, which is consumed along with the fruit and not peeled, there is flesh that is either white or pinkish/reddish in color. More often than not, you can find lots of small hard seeds enveloping the soft and sweet pulp of the fruit. Guava is quite rich in Vitamin C, maybe even more than orange, apart from a number of other vitamins and minerals. Browse through the article to know about the health and nutrition benefits of eating guavas.

Nutritional Value of Guava

Given below is the amount of nutrients present in 1 cup (165 gm) of Guava, apart from Iron and Folic Acid:
Calcium - 50 mg
Carbohydrates - 19.6 gm
Fiber - 8.9 gm
Niacin - 2 mg.
Phosphorus - 48 mg
Protein - 1.35 gm
Total Fat - 0.9 gm
Vitamin A - 412 IU
Vitamin B - 1.15 mg
Vitamin C - 498 mg
Calories - 84

Health & Nutrition Benefits of Eating Guava
Guava is a very good source of vitamins, fibers as well as minerals.
Being rich in Vitamin C; guava is effective in treating male infertility caused by sperm clumping, adhesion and other abnormalities.
Guava has been associated with healing of wounds, when applied externally.
Guava has general haemostatic properties and can be used for treating bleeding nose, gums and minor internal hemorrhaging.
Guava helps cure dysentery, by inhibiting microbial growth and removing extra mucus from the intestines.
Guava helps the body in combating free radicals produced during metabolism and aids in preventing age-related chronic diseases, such as Alzheimer’s, cataract and rheumatoid arthritis.
Guava is one of the richest sources of dietary fiber and thus, is good for those suffering from constipation.
Guava strengthens and tones up the digestive system and even disinfects the same.
Guava, having high content of roughage, no cholesterol & less digestible carbohydrates, is good for those trying to lose weight.
Guavas can improve the texture of skin and help avoid skin problems. For the purpose, you can either eat it raw or make wash your skin with a decoction of its immature fruits and leaves.
Juice of raw and immature guavas or decoction of guava-leaves is known to bring relief in cough and cold.
Researches have shown that guava is pretty effective in preventing cancer and even heart diseases in people.
The presence of complex carbohydrates and dietary fibers in guava makes it effective in lowering cholesterol and blood sugar levels.
The presence of Vitamin C and other phytonutrients, such as caretenoids, isoffavonoids and polyphenols, in guava has led to it being an effective antioxidant.

Guava has been found to be beneficial for people suffering from the following ailments:
Acidosis
Asthma
Bacterial Infections
Catarrh
Congestion of the Lungs
Convulsions
Epilepsy
High Blood Pressure
Obesity
Oral Ulcers
Poor Circulation
Prolonged Menstruation
Scurvy
Swollen Gums
Toothache


Benefits of eating bananaS

Benefits of eating bananaS

Bananas... This is very interesting.

After Reading THIS, you'll NEVER look at a banana in the same way again -

Bananas. Containing three natural sugars - sucrose, fructose and glucose combined with fiber, a banana gives an instant, sustained and substantial boost of energy.

Research has proven that just two bananas provide enough energy for a strenuous 90-minute workout. No wonder the banana is the number one fruit with the world's leading athletes.

But energy isn't the only way a banana can help us keep fit. It can also help overcome or prevent a substantial number of illnesses and conditions, making it a must to add to our daily diet.

Depression:

According to a recent survey undertaken by MIND amongst people suffering from depression, many felt much better after eating a banana.

This is because bananas contain tryptophan, a type of protein that the body converts into serotonin, known to make you relax, improve your mood and generally make you feel happier.

PMS: Forget the pills - eat a banana. The vitamin B6 it contains regulates blood glucose levels, which can affect your mood.

Anemia:

High in iron, bananas can stimulate the production of haemoglobin in the blood and so helps in cases of anemia.

Blood Pressure:

This unique tropical fruit is extremely high in potassium yet low in salt, making it the perfect to beat blood pressure.

So much so, the US Food and Drug Administration has just allowed the banana industry to make official claims for the fruit's ability to reduce the risk of blood pressure and stroke.

Brain Power:

200 students at aTwickenham (Middlesex) school were helped through their exams this year by eating bananas at breakfast, break, and lunch in a bid to boost their brain power. Research has shown that the potassium-packed fruit can assist learning by making pupils more alert.

Constipation:

High in fiber, including bananas in the diet can help restore normal bowel action, helping to overcome the problem without resorting to laxatives.

Hangovers:

One of the quickest ways of curing a hangover is to make a banana milkshake, sweetened with honey. The banana calms the stomach and, with the help of the honey, builds up depleted blood sugar levels, while the milk soothes and re-hydrates your system.

Heartburn:

Bananas have a natural antacid effect in the body, so if you suffer from heartburn, try eating a banana for soothing relief.

Morning Sickness:

Snacking on bananas between meals helps to keep blood sugar levels up and avoid morning sickness.

Mosquito bites:

Before reaching for the insect bite cream, try rubbing the affected area with the inside of a banana skin. Many people find it amazingly successful at reducing swelling and irritation.

Nerves:

Bananas are high in B vitamins that help calm the nervous system.

Overweight and at work?

Studies at the Institute of Psychology in Austria found pressure at work leads to gorging on comfort food like chocolate and crisps. Looking at 5,000 hospital patients, researchers found the most obese were more likely to be in high-pressure jobs. The report concluded that, to avoid panic-induced food cravings, we need to control our blood sugar levels by snacking on high carbohydrate foods every two hours to keep levels steady.

Ulcers:

The banana is used as the dietary food against intestinal disorders because of its soft texture and smoothness. It is the only raw fruit that can be eaten without distress in over-chronicler cases. It also neutralizes over-acidity and reduces irritation by coating the lining of the stomach.

Temperature control:

Many other cultures see bananas as a "cooling" fruit that can lower both the physical and emotional temperature of expectant mothers. In Thailand, for example, pregnant women eat bananas to ensure their baby is born with a cool temperature.

Seasonal Affective Disorder :

(SAD): Bananas can help SAD sufferers because they contain the natural mood enhancer tryptophan.

Smoking:

Bananas can also help people trying to give up smoking.

The B6, B12 they contain, as well as the potassium and magnesium found in them, help the body recover from the effects of nicotine withdrawal.

Stress:

Potassium is a vital mineral, which helps normalize the heartbeat, sends oxygen to the brain and regulates your body's water balance. When we are stressed, our metabolic rate rises, thereby reducing our potassium levels. These can be rebalanced with the help of a high-potassium banana snack.

Strokes:

According to research in "The New England Journal of Medicine,
"eating bananas as part of a regular diet can cut the risk of death by
strokes by as much as 40%!

Warts:

Those keen on natural alternatives swear that if you want to kill off a wart, take a piece of banana skin and place it on the wart, with the yellow side out. Carefully hold the skin in place with a plaster or surgical tape!

So, a banana really is a natural remedy for many ills. When you compare it to an apple, it has four times the protein, twice the carbohydrate, three times the phosphorus, five times the vitamin A and iron, and twice the other vitamins and minerals.

It is also rich in potassium and is one of the best value foods around.

So maybe its time to change that well-known phrase so that we say,

"A banana a day keeps the doctor away!"

PASS THIS ON TO ALL OF YOUR FRIENDS and FAMILY

PS :

Bananas must be the reason monkeys are so happy all the time!

Benefits Of Fruits

Benefits Of Fruits

Fruit is 100% cholesterol free
High cholesterol is not considered good for a healthy body. It is an interesting fact about the fruits that they do not contain much cholesterol. However several animal products such as meat and dairy products contain a lot of cholesterol. So either avoid completely or reduce consumption of animal products as much as possible and make it a habit to have at least one fruit per day.

Fruit stimulates memory
Fruit is the best fuel for our brain. If someone consumes fruit on a regular basis then his or her brain becomes capable of recalling information faster and more easily. May be here you came to know something new about the fruits but it is better late than never. So just keep this in your mind forever. Our lives have become so busy in the modern times that we hardly care about our eating habits and most of the time in the hustle-bustle of everyday life we forget to have proper diet also. In such case the fruit could be a real good friend who not only cope with the extra demand of our body but also stimulate our memory and give us energy to keep going.

Get your daily dose of fiber with fruit
A diet that contains plenty of fibers is capable of protecting us against the problems such as corpulance, high blood pressure, and other factors that are responsible for the increase in chances of a heart disease. The food that contains the healthy natural fibers is the right kind of food. The fruits and the vegetables are those natural foods that are fiber rich. In fact, the amount of fiber that we consume could prove to be more important element than the amount of fat that we consume.

Fruit and the sunny skies
Fruit is that healthy diet which helps us fight one of the negative emotions, that is 'depression'. Just remember eating a lot of fruits could have a mysterious healing effect on human beings. Even better option for you is that you can drink a lot of freshly squeezed fruits, as fruit juices.

Create a Fruit Explosion
In case you are not a very enthusiastic fruit eater but you want to eat more fruits, you can begin with fruit juices. To squeeze fruits to make juices is one of the best ways to start eating fruits, which gradually becomes a habit. And thus you can get used to eating more and more fruits. After having fruit juices for a while, you will notice that your appetite to eat raw fruits has increased naturally.


aLL about VitamineS

aLL about VitamineS

Definition

Vitamins are a group of substances essential for normal cell function, growth and development.

Types
There are 13 essential vitamins. That means they are needed for the body to function. They are:

Vitamin A
Vitamin C
Vitamin D
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Vitamin B1 (thiamine)
Vitamin B2 (riboflavin)
Vitamin B3 (niacin)
Pantothenic acid
Biotin
Vitamin B6
Vitamin B12
Folate (folic acid)


Vitamins are grouped into two categories:
? Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body's fatty tissue.
? Water-soluble vitamins must be used by the body right away. Any left over water-soluble vitamins leave the body through the urine. Vitamin B12 is the only water-soluble vitamin that can be stored in the liver for many years.

Function

Each vitamin has specific functions. You can develop health problems (deficiency disease) if you do not get enough of a particular vitamin.

Vitamin A helps in the formation and maintenance of healthy teeth, bones, soft tissue, mucous membranes, and skin.

Vitamin B6 is also known as pyridoxine. The more protein a person eats, the more vitamin B6 is needed to help the body use the protein. Vitamin B6 helps form red blood cells and maintain brain function, among other things.

Vitamin B12, like the other B vitamins, is important for metabolism. It also helps form red blood cells and maintain the central nervous system.

Vitamin C, also called ascorbic acid, is an antioxidant that promotes healthy teeth and gums. It helps the body absorb iron and maintain healthy tissue. It also promotes wound healing.

Vitamin D is also known as the "sunshine vitamin," since it is made by the body after being in the sun. Ten to 15 minutes of sunshine three times per week is enough to produce the body's requirement of vitamin D. This vitamin promotes the body's absorption of calcium, which is essential for the normal development and maintenance of healthy teeth and bones. It also helps maintain proper blood levels of calcium and phosphorus.

Vitamin E is an antioxidant also known as tocopherol. It plays a role in the formation of red blood cells and helps the body use vitamin K.

Vitamin K is not listed among the essential vitamins, but without it blood would not stick together (coagulate). Some studies suggest that it helps promote strong bones in the elderly.

Biotin is essential for the metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates, and in the production of hormones and cholesterol.

Niacin is a B vitamin that helps maintain healthy skin and nerves. It is also has cholesterol-lowering effects.

Folate works with vitamin B12 to help form red blood cells. It is necessary for the production of DNA, which controls tissue growth and cell function. Any woman who is pregnant should be sure to get enough folate. Low levels of folate are linked to birth defects such as spina bifida. Many foods are now fortified with folic acid.

Pantothenic acid is essential for the metabolism of food. It is also plays a role in the production of hormones and cholesterol.

Riboflavin (B2) works with the other B vitamins. It is important for body growth and the production of red blood cells.

Thiamine (B1) helps the body cells change carbohydrates into energy. It is also essential for heart function and healthy nerve cells.

Food Sources

? FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Vitamin A:

Eggs
Meat
Milk
Cheese
Cream
Liver
Kidney
Cod
Halibut fish oil


Vitamin D:

Cheese
Butter
Margarine
Cream
Fortified milk
Fish
Oysters
Cereals


Vitamin E:

Wheat germ
Corn
Nuts
Seeds
Olives
Spinach and other green leafy vegetables
Asparagus
Vegetable oils and products made from vegetable oils, such as margarine


Vitamin K:

Cabbage
Cauliflower
Spinach
Soybeans
Cereals


? WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

Folate:
Green, leafy vegetables
Fortified foods

Niacin (B3):

Dairy products
Poultry
Fish
Lean meats
Nuts
Eggs
Legumes
Enriched breads and cereals


Pantothenic acid and biotin

Eggs
Fish
Dairy products
Whole-grain cereals
Legumes
Yeast
Broccoli and other vegetables in the cabbage family
White and sweet potatoes
Lean beef

Thiamine (B1):

Fortified breads, cereals, and pasta
Whole grains
Lean meats
Fish
Dried beans
Peas
Soybeans
Dairy products
Fruits and vegetables


Vitamin B12:

Meat
Eggs
Poultry
Shellfish
Milk and milk products


Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

Citrus fruits and juices
Strawberries
Tomatoes
Broccoli
Turnip and other greens
Sweet and white potatoes
Cantaloupe


Most other fruits and vegetables contain some vitamin C; fish and milk contain small amounts.

Side Effects

Many people think that if some is good, a lot is better. This is not always the case. High doses of certain vitamins can be poisonous. Ask your doctor what is best for you.

Recommendations

The Food and Nutrition Board at the Institute of Medicine establish recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for vitamins. The recommendations reflect how much of each nutrient you should receive on a daily basis, based on the known nutritional needs of practically all healthy people.

The best way to get the daily requirement of essential vitamins is to eat a balanced diet that contains a variety of foods from the food guide pyramid.

Specific recommendations for each vitamin depend on age, gender, and other factors (such as pregnancy).

Antibiotics: Facts that you should know

Antibiotics: Facts that you should know

Antibiotics are a very special class of modern medicines which are used to fight many infectious diseases caused by bacteria. Infection means the condition or state in which body or any part of body is invaded by harmful microorganisms causing serious damaging effects . The most important symptoms of the Infection is inflammation . The other common symptoms are pain, heat , redness, swelling or edema and disordered function of the tissue. It is well known to all , the infectious diseases are caused by invasion of various types of pathogenic or harmful microorganisms like bacteria, virus, fungi, parasites into the body. Antibiotics are effective only against infections that are caused by bacteria. Antibiotics are not effective at all against most viral infections . That is why it is useless to prescribe costly and dangerous antibiotics for the common viral infections such as colds , bronchitis, sore throats and watery diarrhea. Some viral infections like influenza, and HIV and AIDS can be treated with definite antiviral drugs. On the basis of the illness , sign and symptoms and laboratory tests, the physicians usually determine whether any antibiotic is at all necessary or if it is really indispensable then what antibiotic should be appropriate for a particular patient. Everybody should bear in mind that self-medication of antibiotics may be dangerous and fatal .

We use plenty of drugs in our daily life but probably we know very little about the consequences of the widely used medicines . If the doctor prescribes an antibiotic, it is the most important thing to ask him or her about the possible side effects of the drug. Antibiotics may cause very serious side effects . Some of the common side effects are allergic reactions, which are characterized by skin rash and itching or in very severe cases difficulty in breathing, nausea, vomiting , diarrhea an stomach pain . Antibiotics also kill or inhibit the growth of the normal or good bacterial flora on our skin or mucous membrane . These naturally occurring good bacteria are very essential for our body. The use of antibiotic causes the good bacteria to be replaced by the bacteria that can cause diarrhea and yeast infections . It is very important to call a doctor or seek advice from the expert when anybody experiences any side effects during antibiotic therapy.

The most notorious and dangerous problem with this type of drug use is the development of bacterial resistance to an antibiotic. According to an International Task Force studying antibiotic resistance, although antibiotics are said to have saved and improved millions of lives than any other class of medicine, their use has set in motion the biggest intervention in population genetics seen to date of this planet . The effects of that intervention are seen in the distributions of antibiotic resistance genes throughout the world's bacterial populations. This change , although not seen apparently has had a very profound effect on human health as the antibiotics themselves . One expert observed that, " resistance to antibiotics has become a global problem with a major and devastating impact on health care in both developed and developing countries".

Some bacteria are naturally resistant to certain antibiotics, but usually resistance is acquired . Bacteria can become resistant to an antibiotic that was previously effective. Resistance mostly develops after long time treatment with an antibiotic or antibiotics that kill a wide range of bacteria. Resistance is a growing problem and it is thought that some types of infectious diseases will eventually not be treatable with antibiotics. This resistance is due to over use or indiscriminate use of antibiotics especially for common viral infections.

The antibiotics should be used only when it is prescribed or advised by the physician. It is not a good practice to take any kind of medicine without consulting the doctors. It is sometimes very risky to take antibiotics given by someone else or prescribed for a previous illness. There are three basic principles to help ensure that indicated antibiotics treatment will be effective.

1. The dosage is a very important factor for antibiotic effectiveness and safety. If the dosage of the antibiotic is not correct or adequate , it will not be effective against the infection and bacteria are more likely to develop resistance.

2. Full course of antibiotic should be taken for the full amount of time prescribed by the doctor. Very often , it is observed that the patients stop taking antibiotics when they begin to feel better with a misconception that the illness has been cured. The fact is that , even after the symptoms disappear , the bacteria may still be present in small quantities and subsequently the infection may return if the antibiotic use is stopped. The discontinuance of the prescribed dose may also cause resistance.

3. Antibiotic should not be saved or reused. All of the antibiotics should be taken and none of them should be left over . In any case , if it happens , then the antibiotic should not be used to treat any other infectious diseases. Because, different types of antibiotics are used for different infections. So taking left over antibiotics may not be effective. Moreover, it may be futile if antibiotics are used after the date of expire .

The global antibiotic market was put at 15.5 billion US dollar in 1991 and estimate suggests it will reach to 22 billion dollar in 1993. By the year 2000 , the antibiotic market is expected to reach 40 billion dollar. In 1989, more than 1.1 billion US dollar was spent on only five expensive oral antibiotics. These antibiotics were ciprofloxacin , norfloxacin, amoxicillin, cefuroxime axetil and cefaclor. The US antibiotic market is worth some 6 billion US dollar a year. Since the drug industries are profit oriented, they try to uplift the sales of antibiotics. This occurs either by increasing the volume or increasing the relative proportion of expensive antibiotics, which usually are not drug of choice . It is therefore doubtful whether optimal and rational prescribing of antibiotics can be attained in this context .

Recommendations:

1. Government should develop strict antibiotic policies as part of national drug policy .

These should include:
a) A limited list of antibiotics with some kept in reserve for use against microorganism resistance to first line drugs.

b) A regularly revised set of therapeutic guidelines or standard treatment guidelines.

c) Drug use indicator studies to monitor the use of antibiotics and , where necessary , the introduction of intervention strategies to encourage the rational use of antibiotic

2. Product information should include clear warning about the problems of resistance and the need for careful diagnosis and selective use .

3. Combination products of antibiotics except cotrimoxazole or those with active ingredients such as clavulanate or sulbactum should be banned .

4. The policy makers and health authorities should introduce regular refresher courses and other independent exchanges of information on antibiotics for health workers. One of the most important information to communicate is that new antibiotics should be used cautiously and often kept in reserve for the treatment of serious infections that proved to be resistant to other antibiotic.

5. Antibiotics with potential dangers such as chloramphenicol or systemic neomycin should be placed under severe restriction .Wherever necessary, they should be withdrawn from the general market and be prescribed by specialist who are familiar with their adverse reactions.

An Advice for All :

Always consult your doctors if you have an infection. Remember , only your doctors and pharmacists can determine if you have an infection and the type of antibiotics that will be the most effective and safe for you to take.

By Dr. Muniruddin Ahmed
Professor and Chairman,
Dept. of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology,
Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Dhaka

AIDS - Bachte hole jaante hobE

AIDS - Bachte hole jaante hobE

Fast facts about HIV

What is HIV?

HIV stands for 'human immunodeficiency virus'. HIV is a virus (of the type called retrovirus) that infects cells of the human immune system (mainly CD4 positive T cells and macrophages—key components of the cellular immune system), and destroys or impairs their function. Infection with this virus results in the progressive deterioration of the immune system, leading to 'immune deficiency'.
The immune system is considered deficient when it can no longer fulfill its role of fighting off infections and diseases. Immunodeficient people are more susceptible to a wide range of infections, most of which are rare among people without immune deficiency. Infections associated with severe immunodeficiency are known as 'opportunistic infections', because they take advantage of a weakened immune system.

What is AIDS?


AIDS stands for 'acquired immunodeficiency syndrome' and is a surveillance definition based on signs, symptoms, infections, and cancers associated with the deficiency of the immune system that stems from infection with HIV.

What are the symptoms of HIV?


Most people infected with HIV do not know that they have become infected, because they do not feel ill immediately after infection. However, some people at the time of seroconversion develop “Acute retroviral syndrome” which is a glandular fever-like illness with fever, rash, joint pains and enlarged lymph nodes.
Seroconversion refers to the development of antibodies to HIV and usually takes place between 1 and 6 weeks after HIV infection has happened. Whether or not HIV infection causes initial symptoms, an HIV-infected person is highly
infectious during this initial period and can transmit the virus to another person. The only way to determine whether HIV is present in a person's body is by testing for HIV antibodies or for HIV itself.
After HIV has caused progressive deterioration of the immune system, increased susceptibility to infections may lead to symptoms. HIV is staged on the basis of certain signs, symptoms, infections, and cancers grouped by the World Health Organization (WHO).
• Primary HIV infection - may be asymptomatic or experienced as Acute retroviral syndrome
• Clinical stage 1 - asymptomatic or generalized swelling of the lymph nodes
• Clinical stage 2 - includes minor weight loss, minor mucocutaneous manifestations, and recurrent upper respiratory tract infections
• Clinical stage 3 - includes unexplained chronic diarrhoea, unexplained persistent fever, oral candidiasis or leukoplakia, severe bacterial infections, pulmonary tuberculosis, and acute necrotizing inflammation in the mouth.Some persons with clinical stage 3 have AIDS.
• Clinical stage 4 - includes 22 opportunistic infections or cancers related to HIV. All persons with clinical stage 4 have AIDS. Most of these conditions are opportunistic infections that can be treated easily in healthy people.

When does a person have AIDS?


AIDS is a surveillance term defined by the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and by the European Centre for the Epidemiological Monitoring of AIDS (EuroHIV). The term AIDS applies to the most advanced stages of HIV infection, defined by the occurrence of any of more than 20 opportunistic infections or HIV-related cancers. In addition, the CDC defines AIDS on the basis of a CD4 positive T cell count of less than 200 per mm3 of blood.

How quickly do people infected with HIV develop AIDS?


The length of time can vary widely between individuals. The majority of people infected with HIV, if not treated, develop signs of HIV-related illness within 5-10 years, but the time between infection with HIV and being diagnosed with AIDS can be 10–15 years, sometimes longer. Antiretroviral therapy can slow down disease progression to AIDS by decreasing the infected person’s viral load.
WHO recommends initiation of antiretroviral therapy for all HIV-infected adolescents and adults who are at clinical stage 4 or have a CD4 positive T cell count below 200 per mm3, and for some persons who are at clinical stage .

Where is HIV found?

HIV is found in many body fluids including blood, semen, vaginal fluids and breast milk.

How is HIV transmitted?


HIV is transmitted through:

• Unprotected penetrative (vaginal or anal) and oral sex with an infected person
• Blood transfusion with contaminated blood
• By using contaminated syringes, needles or other sharp instruments
• From an infected mother to her child during pregnancy, childbirth and
breastfeeding

Can I get HIV from casual contact?


HIV is not transmitted by day-to-day contact in social settings, schools or in the
workplace. You cannot be infected by shaking someone's hand, by hugging someone, by using the same toilet or drinking from the same glass as an HIV-positive person, playing sports with or by being exposed to coughing or sneezing by anyone living with HIV. So you should not be fearful of interacting with persons who are living with the disease.

How can you limit your risk of getting HIV through sex?


• Abstain from sex
• Remain faithful in a relationship with an uninfected equally faithful partner with no other risk behaviour
• Practice only non-penetrative sex
• Use male or female condoms correctly each time you have sex

In addition to the above, you can further reduce the risk of HIV infection through sex?

• Delay the age you begin to have sexual relations
• Reduce the number of sexual partners you have
• Get tested and treated for sexually transmitted infections (STIs)

How can you prevent the other ways of HIV transmission?

• Avoid injecting drugs, or if you choose to inject drugs, always use new and disposable needles and syringes
• Ensure that any blood or blood products that you might need are tested for HIV and that blood safety standards are implemented.

What is 'safer' sex?


No sexual act is 100% safe. Safer sex involves taking precautions that decrease the potential of transmitting or acquiring STIs, including HIV, through sex. Using condoms correctly every time one has sex is considered ‘safer’ sex.

How effective are condoms in preventing HIV?


Quality-assured male and female condoms are the only products currently available to protect against STIs, including HIV. When used properly every time one has sex, condoms are a proven and effective means of preventing HIV infection in women and men.
However, apart from abstinence, no protective method is 100% effective, and condom use cannot guarantee absolute protection against any STI. In order to achieve the protective effect of condoms, they must be used correctly all the time. Incorrect use can lead to condom slippage or breakage, thus diminishing their protective effect.

What is a female condom?

The female condom is only female-controlled contraceptive barrier method currently on the market. The female condom is a strong, soft, transparent polyurethane sheath inserted in the vagina before sexual intercourse. It entirely lines the vagina and provides protection against both pregnancy and STIs including HIV, when used correctly at each act of intercourse.

What is the risk of getting HIV from kissing?

Transmission though kissing on the mouth carries virtually no risk; no evidence has been found that the virus is spread through saliva by kissing.

What is the risk of getting HIV through body piercing or from a tattoo?

A risk of HIV transmission exists if non-sterile instruments are used. Instruments that are intended to penetrate the skin should be sterilized and used once, then disposed of or sterilized again.

What is the risk of getting HIV from sharing razors with a person living with HIV?


Any kind of cut using a non-sterile object, such as a razor or knife, can transmit HIV. Sharing razors, knives or other sharp instruments with anyone is not advised, unless they are fully sterilized after each use.

Is it ever completely safe to have sex with a HIV-positive person?

No, there is always a risk of transmission when having sex with a HIV-positive person. The risk can be significantly reduced if condoms are properly used every time one has sex.

Is it safe for two HIV-positive individuals to engage in unprotected sex exclusively with each other?

No, it is not safe for two HIV-positive individuals to have unprotected sex with each other as re-infection with other types of HIV and the transmission of other STIs can occur. Use of condoms always is advised, even when both partners are HIV-positive.

How can mother-to-child transmission be prevented?

Transmission of HIV from an infected mother to her child can occur during pregnancy, during labour or after delivery through breastfeeding. The risk of mother-to-child transmission can be reduced by the following:
• Treatment with antiretroviral drugs
• Caesarian section
• Avoiding breastfeeding, but only when replacement feeding is acceptable,
feasible, affordable, sustainable and safe. If not, exclusive breastfeeding is recommended for the first 6 months.

How can people who inject drugs reduce their risk of contracting HIV?

People who inject drugs are at high risk because they can inject HIV directly into their blood stream. But there are certain steps they can take to reduce this risk:
• Take drugs orally (i.e. change from injecting to non-injecting drug use).
• Do not re-use or use the same needles, syringes, water or drug-preparation equipment with other people.
• Use a new syringe (obtained from a reliable source, e.g. a chemist or a needleexchange programme) to prepare and inject drugs each time.
• When preparing drugs, use sterile water or clean water from a reliable source.
• Use a fresh alcohol swab to clean the skin prior to injection.

How can health-care workers help to prevent transmission in health-care settings?

Health-care workers should follow Universal Precautions which are infection-control guidelines developed to protect health workers and their patients from exposure to diseases spread by blood and certain body fluids.

Universal Precautions include:


• Careful handling and disposal of 'sharps' (items that could cause cuts or puncture wounds, including needles, hypodermic needles, scalpel and other blades, knives, infusion sets, saws, broken glass, and nails)
• Hand-washing with soap and water before and after all procedures;
• Use of protective barriers such as gloves, gowns, aprons, masks and goggles when in direct contact with blood and other body fluids;
• Safe disposal of waste contaminated with blood or body fluids;
• Disinfection of instruments and other contaminated equipment; and
• Proper handling of bedding and clothing stained with blood, diarrhoea or other body fluids.

What should you do if you think you have exposed yourself to HIV?

If you think you've been exposed to HIV, you should get immediately seek help from your local health authority to receive counselling and testing for HIV. You should take precautions to prevent transmitting HIV to others in case you are infected with HIV.

What is PEP?

Antiretroviral drugs can be prescribed within 72 hours of exposure to potentially HIVinfected blood or body fluids to prevent HIV sero conversion. This is called “post4 exposure prophylaxis for HIV infection” (HIV-PEP). However HIV-PEP is not 100% effective, even when started very shortly after exposure, so it is vitally important to try to take every measure to prevent transmission of HIV in the first place.

Does HIV only affect men who have sex with men and people who inject drugs?

No. Anyone who has unprotected sex, uses un-sterilized injecting equipment, or has a transfusion with contaminated blood can become infected with HIV. Infants can be infected with HIV from their mothers during pregnancy, during labour or after delivery through breastfeeding. Worldwide, 90% of HIV cases are the result of sexual transmission, and 60–70% of HIV cases occur among heterosexuals.

Can I tell someone has HIV just by looking at them?


No, you cannot tell if someone has HIV by just looking at them. A person infected with HIV may look healthy and feel good, but they can still pass the virus to you. A blood test is the only way a person can find out if he or she is infected with HIV.

Can I have more than one STI at a time?


Yes, you can have more than one STI at the same time. Each infection requires its own treatment. You cannot become immune to STIs. You can catch the same infection over and over again. Many men and women do not see or feel any early symptoms when they first become infected with an STI, however, they can still infect their sexual partner. Presence STIs can also increase your vulnerability to HIV infection.

When you are on antiretroviral therapy, can you transmit the virus to others?

Antiretroviral therapy for HIV does not prevent an infected person from passing on the virus to others. It can keep viral load down to undetectable levels, but HIV is still present in the body and can be transmitted to others through sexual contact, by sharing injecting equipment, or from mothers to their infants during pregnancy, childbirth or breastfeeding.

Are mosquito bites a risk of infection with HIV?

HIV is not spread by mosquitoes or other biting insects. Even if the virus enters a mosquito or another sucking or biting insect, it cannot reproduce in insects. Since the insect cannot be infected with HIV, it cannot transmit HIV to the next human it feeds on or bites.

Does male circumcision prevent HIV transmission?

Recent studies suggest that male circumcision can reduce the risk of acquiring HIV though sex. However, it is not 100% effective and circumcised men can still become infected. In addition, HIV-positive men who are circumcised can infect their sexual partners. Male circumcision should not replace other known methods of prevention, but be always considered as part of a comprehensive of prevention strategy.

Reference: UNAIDS Program

AIDS - epidemic update 2007

The 2007 AIDS epidemic update reports on the latest developments in the global AIDS epidemic. The 2007 edition provides the most recent estimates of the AIDS epidemic and explores new findings and trends in the epidemic’s evolution.

2007_AIDS-epidemic update_en.pdf

Note regarding behavioural data published in the 2007 AIDS Epidemic Update

Immediately after the 2007 AIDS Epidemic Update was released electronically on 20 November 2007 some problems were discovered with data processing in relation to the behavioural data among young people, reported in Table 3 on page 13.
Following verification, corrections were made to the data for several countries in this Table.
The data that appear in the electronic version as of 26 November 2007 and in the printed version of the 2007 AIDS Epidemic Update therefore contain the corrected data.


Erratum regarding estimates among children

In-depth review of HIV estimates among children published in the 2007 AIDS Epidemic Update report in November 2007 has revealed inaccuracies in processing some of the data.
The correct provisional global estimates for 2007 are:
Number of children living with HIV in 2007: 2.1 million [1.9-2.4 million];
Number of children who died of AIDS in 2007: 290,000 [270 000-320 000].
Note that adding these corrected estimates for children to the estimates for adults does not add up to the published estimated total number of people living with HIV of 33.2 million [30.6–36.1 million] and of people who died of AIDS of 2.1 million [1.9–2.4 million], although the estimated ranges are not affected.
Updating estimates is a continuous process and work is ongoing to produce estimates for adults and children for all individual countries. Final country, regional, and global estimates for 2007 will be published in the 2008 Report on the global AIDS epidemic, during July 2008.